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Democracy rules? Subduing armed forces in Africa

Elected governments, which replaced authoritarian regimes during recent African ‘transitions to democracy’ remain vulnerable to military re-intervention and armed conflict. How have new democracies assured democratic control over their military and security establishments?

Case studies carried out by the UK Institute of Development Studies illustrate the problems of ensuring democratic accountability and control over military and security establishments. It is especially difficult where, as in many Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries, military involvement in politics has undermined state legitimacy, weakened government capacity to implement reform and led to armed challenges to the state’s monopoly of violence. The research explored how these problems have been tackled in transitional African democracies to consolidate democratic control.

The research examined:

Interdependence between military and security sector reform and broader issues of democratisation and good governance.
Lessons from previous failures to prevent military re-intervention and conflict.
Diverse historical paths followed during African transitions to democracy, including: negotiated withdrawals from military or authoritarian rule (Ghana, Nigeria, South Africa); transitions brought about by military or urban insurrection (Mali); democratisation following liberation wars (Ethiopia, Eritrea, Uganda and South Africa); and liberalisation of previously dominant or single party regimes (Senegal, Tanzania).
Problems of controlling armed forces, other security bureaucracies, and non-state military formations.

Key findings include:

Civilian governments' inability to assure legitimate, accountable and effective governance has triggered military intervention and conflict.
Professional military and security establishments, however, have tended to see themselves as victims of military involvement in politics.
Senegal and Tanzania have remained important exceptions to military interventionism. Even so their military outfits have not been completely isolated from politics.
Some transitions have opened more space for reform than others: South African democratic control of military and security establishments has been facilitated by an assertive legislature, strong political parties and an active civil society.

Democratic strategies within the military and security sectors are vital. In particular:

Policy choices made at turning points in transitions from non-democratic to democratic governance and from peace to war can be decisive.
The reform process itself is crucial in giving the public and stakeholders a sense of ownership. Examples are the broad-based constitution-making exercises in Eritrea, Uganda and South Africa, and the latter’s White Paper and Defence Review consultations.
Reforms work best when based on sufficient understanding of military and security organisations and when the latter are engaged as partners in reform.

Source(s):
'Radical Soldiers, New Model Armies and the Nation State in Ethiopia and Eritrea' by Robin Luckham in 'Political Armies' edited by Kees Koonings and Dirk Kruijt, London: Zed Press (2001)
'Democratic Transitions and Military Reform: Some Comparisons Between Nigeria and South Africa', by Robin Luckham in 'Democracy and Security in Nigeria and South Africa', edited by Gavin Cawthra, Kayode Fayemi and Robin Luckham (forthcoming 2002)
‘Military withdrawal from politics in Africa revisited’ by Robin Luckham in 'The military and politics in West Africa: from engagement to democratic control' edited by Pita Agbese and George Kieh, Ashgate Publishing London and Vermont (forthcoming 2002)

Funded by: US Institute of Peace, UK Department for International Development (ESCOR R6633) 1995-2001

id21 Research Highlight: 29 November 2001

Further Information:
Robin Luckham
Institute of Development Studies
University of Sussex
Brighton BN1 9RE
UK

Tel: +44 (0) 1273 678782
Contact the contributor: R.Luckham@ids.ac.uk

Institute of Development Studies (IDS), UK

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